Here is a list of top twelve international environmental policies:- 1. International Whaling Commission 2. Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organisation 3. OECD Environmental Committee 4. Helsinki Convention 5. OECD Meet on Environment 6. Basel Convention on Hazardous Waste 7. Montreal Protocol 8. Indian Ocean Rimiorganisation for Regional Corporation and Others.
International Environmental Policies:
ADVERTISEMENTS:
- International Whaling Commission (1947)
- Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organisation (IMCO)
- OECD Environmental Committee (1974)
- Helsinki Convention 1974
- OECD Meet on Environment – 2001
- Basel Convention on Hazardous Waste (1989)
- Montreal Protocol (1989)
- Indian Ocean Rimiorganisation for Regional Corporation
- United Nations Conference on Environment and Development at Rio De Janeiro, (June, 1992) (Agenda 21)
- Agenda 21
- The Hague Conference
- DOHA Conference
1. International Whaling Commission (1947):
In order to preserve whales in the high seas, and also to protect them from extinction, the IWC was set up in 1947, though the League of Nations in 1927 itself recognised the need for such an action. The International Commission on Whales has prohibited altogether the killing of blue whales; and commercial whaling has been banned in most of the Indian Ocean.
Several ‘Whale Sanctuaries’ have been established in many parts of the world, Similarly, efforts have been taken to reduce the killing of ‘Dolphins’ in Eastern Pacific. In spite of all efforts through international agreements, prohibiting commercial Whaling and other rare varieties of marine animals, under the guise of scientific research, many whales and dolphins are killed every year.
2. Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organisation (IMCO):
For purpose of effectively controlling discharges of oil from the tankers, the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organisation (IMCO) signed an agreement in the year 1954. At that time, only 30 nations joined in this Organisation, while several nations did not opt to join.
According to the agreement, the signatory nations agreed not to spill oil in the oceans through ballasting operations. However by 1969, many nations joined this organisation and signed the agreement, when specific amendments were brought into operation.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
After ‘Torrey Canyon’ disaster in 1967, the members of IMCO agreed to follow stringent steps to stop pollution of the seas when it threatens their coast. The agreement insisted on several safety measures in the navigational system; such as ‘Sea Lanes;’ ‘Speed restrictions’, ‘Testing of navigational equipment’, ‘Better training of Officers and Crew’ and also ‘Better methods in the construction of tankers’.
In the year 1972, an agreement was signed in Oslo by 12 northwest European States, regarding the dumping of hazardous wastes into the North Atlantic. Further, in 1973-74, several north-west European States agreed in a ‘convention’ in Paris to control the discharge of effluents into the sea through rivers or pipes.
Generally, identifying cases of discharge of oils will be very difficult, as it requires very vigilant and also efficient monitoring programmes which are highly expensive. Further, collection of photographs for evidence and procedures to make a follow-up work would be very tedious and costly affair.
Stockholm conference on human environment (1972) June 5-16,1972:
ADVERTISEMENTS:
The Stockholm Conference on Human Environment is unique in many respects. This was the first to be held in seventies in a series of major UN conferences which made an in-depth study of the environmental problems and the dangers connected there with and also the need for doing something substantial with the cooperation of the nations of the world.
Later on, it covered problems of pollution, food, women’s rights, desertification, human settlements, Science & Technology and other similar topics.
Secondly, the Stockholm Conference created enthusiasm and hope to all countries. If environmental dangers seemed to loom large, so too did the promise of global cooperation to counter them.
Thirdly, the representative, of the developed countries worked with earnestness in the conference to create new institutions for monitoring global environmental trends and for cooperation in protecting the oceans and other global commons.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
Fourthly, the representatives of the Third World hoped for some significant new assistance from international institutions, for wiping out their countries’ sordid poverty, without much damage to their ecosystem.
Fifthly, in order to generate political will to undertake such tasks as to respond to environmental threats the Stockholm Conference established at the global level, a United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to prod the UN System and the world’s governments into more sound environmental management.
The important expression which struck forcibly at the Stockholm Conference was: “Of all the things in the world, people are the most precious”. This expression of the Chinese delegation was incorporated in the official Stockholm declaration.
This gives greater insight into the concept of ‘human beings’ and ‘human values’, particularly, in developing countries where little considerations are given to human beings and their values.
Finally, before Stockholm, people usually saw the environment as something totally divorced from humanity, even now, some people think like that. To them, the only real environment is a wilderness area, where all the people are excluded. Stockholm recorded a fundamental shift in the emphasis of our environmental thinking. This conference was rightly called the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment.
Framework for Environmental Action:
The broad spectrum in the framework for Environmental action can be summarised in the following:
(a) The global environmental assessment programme (Earth watch).
(b) Environmental Management activities
(c) International measures to support the national and international actions of assessment and management.
Environmental Assessment Programme consists of ‘Evaluation and Review’ by research, monitoring and information exchange. ‘Environmental Management’ consists of goal setting and planning and finally having international consultation and agreements.
Both will have supporting measures, namely, financing, education, training and technical cooperation etc. The Recommendations made by the ‘conference’ are very numerous and also elaborate. However, we can indicate a few of the recommendations to have some glimpse of the Action Plan at the International level.
Recommendation 1:
The planning, improvement and management of rural and urban settlements demand an approach, at all levels, which embraces all aspects of the human environment, both natural and man-made.
Recommendation 2:
(a) In this connection, countries are invited to share internationally, the relevant information on the problems they encounter and the solutions they devise in developing the areas;
(b) Countries which are willing to launch an improvement programme should be prepared to welcome international cooperation, seeking the advice or assistance of competent international bodies.
Recommendation 3:
Certain aspects of human settlements can have international implications; for example the ‘export of Pollution’ from urban and industrial areas, and the effects of seaports on international hinterlands.
Accordingly it is recommended that the attention of Governments be drawn to the need to consult bilaterally or Regionally, whenever Environmental conditions or development plans in one country could have repercussions in one or more neighbouring countries.
Recommendation 4:
It is recommended that development assistance agencies should give high priority, where justified in the light of the social benefits, to supporting Government in financing and setting up services for water supply, disposal of water from all sources, and liquid-waste and solid-waste disposal and treatment, as part of the objectives of the Second United Nations Development Decade.
Recommendation 5:
It is recommended that the World Health Organisation and other United Nations Agencies should provide increased assistance to Governments which so request in the field of Family Planning Programmes, without delay.
3. OECD Environmental Committee (1974):
The OECD Environmental Committee proposed for the following:
1. There should be a policy on non-discrimination between countries in the matters of pollution and every country should have equal rights of access to knowledge and justice.
2. Polluting countries causing damage or likely to cause damage in other countries should be subject to stringent controls similar to those controlling policies adopted by these countries within national boundaries. This is to say that polluting countries in the international field should subject themselves to the same type of control, as they would control their polluters within their countries.
3. Victims of pollution should have access to administrative bodies and also to the courts in polluting countries, to ensure legal protection of the interest.
4. In the event of receiving compensation by the victims of pollutions they should not accept less compensation, if their own national standards are less stringent than those of polluter.
The OECD Environmental Committee extended the principle of equal right of access in the courts of the polluting country as they would do in their own country. The victim could also seek justice from International Joint Commission. Though the Principles advocated by OECD are very laudable, in practice they are very difficult procedures.
4. Helsinki Convention 1974:
Baltic Sea is surrounded by several countries and this Sea has become, more or less, a sink for hazardous wastes, dumped by almost all countries surrounding it. Hence, in 1974 all the seven Baltic States signed the Helsinki Convention to control, if not altogether prohibit, the discharge of hazardous substances into the Baltic Sea. But this could not prove effective or satisfactory, even, due to the attitude of Soviet States which differed from other States.
5. OECD Meet on Environment – 2001:
It was held parries on May 16, 2001. Enviro-ministers or their representatives from 30 countries participated. As per this conference the strategy commits the members to specific national action over the next Ten Years to tackle the Enviro-problem including climate change.
The Strategy adopted emisages specific time-bound targets to achieve five main policy goals:
1. Maintaining the integrity of Ecosystems through the efficient management of natural Resources.
2. De-coupling Enviro pressures from ECO Growth.
3. Improving information for decision making.
4. The social and Enviro-interface, Enhancing the quality of life.
5. Global Environment independence act soon.
6. Basel Convention on Hazardous Waste (1989):
The European Economic Community and Thirty-Five nations of the world met at BASEL in Switzerland in March 1989 to limit and control international transport and also disposal of hazardous waste. The report of Basel Convention contains 29 Articles.
The main points contemplated in it are:
(a) Signatory States are prohibited from transporting hazardous waste to another State which had banned the import of it.
(b) Every country has the right to refuse acceptance of a shipment of hazardous waste.
(c) No signatory country can ship hazardous waste to another signatory country, if the latter does not have facilities to dispose off the waste without detriment to the environment.
(d) In the event of shipment of hazardous wastes, on agreement of acceptance, the wastes must be well packaged, labelled and transported in conformity with the generally accepted and recognised international rules and standards.
This treaty declared that traffic in hazardous wastes is criminal.
7. Montreal Protocol (1989):
The role played by Chloflurocarbons (CFCs) and other halogens responsible for global ozone depletion. We had also studied about the emission of sulphur and nitrogen oxides which are responsible for ‘Acid Rain’. We also studied about the hole in ‘Ozone Layer’ which created much concern to the scientists, as well as administrators, of different countries of the world.
Though in early 1980s USA did not recognise the importance of controlling CFCs and refused to participate in any international agreements, by 1989, it realised the impending danger to the global environment and changed its policy. The result was Montreal Protocol.
According to Montreal Protocol, the USA, along with 24 other industrial nations of the world, agreed to freeze their emissions of nitrogen oxides which are thought to be responsible for acid rain.
Further, the Montreal Protocol on substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was signed on January 1, 1989, pledging to reduce the release of CFCs by 20 per cent by 1994, and further 30 per cent by the end of this century; and also freeze out production of halogens.
The EEC countries have agreed to go for a total ban of CFCs by 2000 AD. In order to meet the demands of refrigerants (where CFCs are used) in the Third World Countries, it is suggested to find new products to replace CFCs.
Montreal Protocol is considered to be historic in spite of its shortcomings. This is the first international effect to recognise pollution, as a global threat, and the need for concerted action by all countries of the world.
8. Indian Ocean Rimiorganisation for Regional Corporation:
*The importance of IORORC is in the importance and significance of Indian Ocean particularly, in terms of trade for its five sub-regions Persian Gulf, South Asia, East Asia. Horn of Africa and Eastern and Southern Africa.
*End of the II World War, new powerful eco-forces aimed at Global competition and expansion trade have been unleashed. Regional blocks of free trading nations are being formed in different I the world. Asian, Asia Pacific forum, North American free trade Area and European community are some of the examples.
*The Indian Ocean’s water provide essential transport connection vital for the trade and economy of the world. Suez Canal, Cape of good Hope, Harmillz Straits, Mataica Straits and Sundes are some of the important strategic water ways.
*Firstly India & A.S. Africa joins in 1990 after 1994 Australia joins.
*The First meeting was held in port louis-mauritius in march- 1995 where a core group of countries-Australia, India, Kenya, Mauritius Oman, Singapore, South Africa, joined hands to take initiative to protect the IOR.
In 1995, seven more countries joined. First meet was held in 1996, followed by second meeting held on was March 6th 1997.
* India is actually at the heart of the Indian Ocean region and constitutes the function between its eastern and western rim.
9. United Nations Conference on Environment and Development at Rio De Janeiro, (June, 1992) (Agenda 21):
In June 1992,178 nations of the World participated in the historic ‘Earth Summit’, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held at Rio De Janeiro. This conference adopted the Rio Declaration which has come to be known as Agenda 21.
Agenda 21 is a comprehensive document that will set the planet ‘Earth’ on a new course of Sustainable development and save this fragile earth from environment degradation. This Agenda 21 is intended to provide a blue print of action in all areas relating to sustainable development of the ‘Earth’ from now until the 21st Century.
Rio Declaration:
The declaration stated that human beings were at the centre of concerns for sustainable development and set the goal of establishing “a new and equitable global partnership through the creation of new levels of cooperation among States, key sectors of societies and people”.
The right to development must be fulfilled, so as to equitably meet the development and environmental needs for the present and future generations. An order to achieve sustainable development and environmental protection shall constitute an integral part of the development process and cannot be considered in isolation from it.
The Declaration firmly underlined that all people shall cooperate in the essential task of eradicating poverty as an indispensable requirement for sustainable development. It acknowledged the need to decrease disparities in standards of living among people and in that context stressed that the special needs of developing countries and those most environmentally vulnerable shall be given priority.
The Declaration also said that States should co-operate to promote a supportive and open international economic system that would lead to economic growth and sustainable development in all countries. It emphasised that trade policy measures for environmental purposes should not constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustified discrimination or be a disguised restriction on international trade.
Further, the Rio Declaration reiterated one of the key issues of the summit, the unsustainable patterns of production and consumption of some States and sought their elimination and the promotion of appropriate demographic policies.
It also stressed co-operation to strengthen indigenous capacity building for sustainable development by improved scientific under .Hiding, through exchange and transfer of technologies, including new and innovative ones.
The Declaration stressed the role of women, youth and indigenous people in environmental management. Further, it has been stated that at the national level, each individual shall have appropriate access to information concerning the environment that is held by public authorities, including hazardous materials and activities in their communities.
The Principles of Rio Declaration embraced the entire gamut of concerns that the world has to tackle to protect the planet. The Rio Declaration set the stage for international agreements which would respect the interest of all and protect the integrity of the global environmental and development system.
10. Agenda 21:
The Agenda covers in great length and details about the issues of ‘sustainable development’ on the planet. Poverty, in all its complex multidimensional aspects, forms an important part of the Agenda.
Its proposals cover population policies, health care, education, women, you, and indigenous people, including local communities, and their rights to achieve sustainable livelihoods. Food, security, clean water, and sanitation are also dealt with in length.
Related issues of consumption patterns, wastage, demographic dynamics, human health and promotion of sustainable human settlements are also on Agenda 21. The protection of fresh water sources, oceans, the safe use of toxic chemicals, the managing of hazardous and radioactive wastes are detailed in the proposals.
Sustaining biological diversity aims at supporting the international convention on biodiversity. Other subjects covered by the Agendas are : Halting the spread of Deserts; Conservation and rational use of forests; Integrated approach to land resource use; Environmental – friendly technology; Building national capacity for sustainable development; creating environmental awareness and the promotion of international legal instruments etc. The Agenda runs into several hundred pages and is in four parts. Its overall provisions find expression in the Rio Declaration.
Cost Factor:
It has been estimated that 600 billion dollars will be the incremental additional cost of the Agenda 21 proposals to make the overdue development of the South sustainable. As much as 125 billion dollars are needed annually, in addition to this, for economic assistance and the transfer of technology from the North.
It was also agreed after prolonged negotiations, that developed countries would augment their aid programmes to the extent of 0.7 per cent of GNP which was the accepted target of U.N. The Commission on Sustainable Development is to review and monitor the progress towards this target.
11. The Hague Conference:
The Sixth edition of the conference of parties (COP6) of UN Frame work convention on ultimate Change (UNFCL) was held at the Hague in Nov. 2000. The conference was commenced to shape the modalities of a plan that would ensure that countries reach the qualified targets that they committed to at COP3 at Kyoto, Japan, in 1997 to reduce consume of Greenhouse Gases responsible of Global warming.
The COP3 at Kyoto Protocol had identified six greenhouse gases (GHG5) mainly responsible for global warms. Carbon dioxide, methane, mitinone oxide, Hydroflucorocarbns perfluorocarbns and sulphur, Hexafluoride.
In this Hague conference. US insistence on credits for “Carbon sinks” (forests and vegetation that draw CO2 during photosynthesis, and star it in the ground or wood) led the talks into a deadlock.
The US argued that “Carbon sequestration” projects undertaken by developed countries should also qualify for credits as they contribute to the cooling of the earth. Before COP5, the US had even indicated that it might be able to meet half its reduction target of 5% by taking recourse to this method alone.
12. DOHA Conference:
The Fourth WTO Ministerial conference was held at DOHA during Nov 9-14-2001 to decide upon the future work programme of the WTO. WTO was set up in 1994, has in its constitution a provision for a ministerial conference after every two years.
The first ministerial conference was held in Singapore. The Second in Geneva and the Third in Seattle. The fourth was held in DOHA in November 2001, in the view of the failure of the III ministerial conference. Major decisions.
The Doha declaration comprising of a main declaration, a declaration of TRIPS Agreements, and public Health and a decision on implementation related issues and countries launches the future work process of WTO. The Doha ministerial has brought environment as negotiating agents in WTO.
However the scope of negotiation in limited to:
(i) The relationship between WTO Rules and specific trade obligation provided for in multilateral Environmental agreements.
(ii) The reduction or eliminations of tariff and non-tariff measures to environmental goods and services.
Negative Aspects:
Environment issue is firmly in the WTO Agenda though the scope of negotiations has been limited as of now.